Trains
Covering a limited network of routes,trains are best used for long hauls between the major cities, when air-conditioned services offer a comfier alternative to buses and taxis. For shorter journeys, however, trains are slower and less reliable. There's a crucial distinction between relatively fast air-conditioned (A/C) trains (including wagons-lits services) and the snail-like non-A/C local-stop services . For reasons of security, the authorities want tourists to use only specially designated A/C trains between Cairo and Upper Egypt, so railway clerks have been instructed not to sell tickets for other trains. Most tourists abide by this but, if you have good reasons not to, it's possible to get an Egyptian to buy your ticket, or simply board a non-A/C train without a ticket, and buy one from the conductor.

Students with ISIC cards get 30 percent reductions on all fares except sleepers and wagons-lits.

Buses
Inter-city buses are an inexpensive way to travel, and often preferable to trains. Besides being quicker for short trips along the Nile Valley, buses serve areas beyond the rail network, such as Sinai, the oases, Abu Simbel and Hurghada. Travelling in Egypt for any length of time, you are likely to make considerable use of the various networks.

City transport
Most Egyptian towns are small enough to cover on foot, especially if you stay in a hotel near the centre. In larger cities, however, local transport is definitely useful. Learn to recognize Arabic numerals and you can take full advantage of the cheap buses , minibuses and trams that cover most of Alexandria and Cairo (which also has river taxis and an excellent metro). Bus and tram routes are detailed under individual entries in the guide.

Equally ubiquitous are four-seater taxis (black and white in Cairo, black and yellow in Alex), which often pick up extra passengers heading in the same direction. As meters are rarely used (or work), the trick is to know the fare and pay on arrival, rather than ask or haggle at the beginning. Above all, don't confuse these cabs with larger special taxis (usually Peugeot 504s or Mercedes), which cost three times more and prey on tourists. If you do rent a special, establish the price - and bargain it down - before you get in. The section on Cairo taxis contains some more advice.

You will also come across caleches - horse-drawn buggies, also known as hantours . These are primarily tourist transport, and you'll be accosted by drivers in Alexandria, a few parts of Cairo, and most of all in Luxor and Aswan. Fares are high by local taxi standards and, despite supposed tariffs set by the local councils, are in practice entirely negotiable. In a few small towns, mostly in Middle Egypt, caleches remain part of local city transport. Ask locals the price of fares before climbing on board, or simply pay what you see fit at the end. Some of the horses and buggies are in pristine condition; others painful to behold. Tourists can help by boycotting drivers who abuse their animals, and by contributing to the Brooke Hospital for Animals.

Driving, biking and hitching
Driving in Egypt is not for the faint-hearted or inexperienced motorist. Cities, highways, backroads and pistes each pose a challenge to drivers' skills and nerve. Pedestrians and carts seem blithely indifferent to heavy traffic. Though accidents are less frequent than you'd think, the crumpled wrecks alongside highways are a constant reminder of the hazards of motoring.

Although driving on the right is pretty much universal, other rules of the road vary. Traffic in cities is relentless and anarchic, with vehicles weaving to and fro between lanes, signalling by horn. Two beeps means "I'm alongside and about to overtake". A single long blast warns "I can't (won't) stop and I'm coming through!" Extending your hand, fingers raised and tips together, is the signal for "Watch out, don't pass now"; spreading your fingers and flipping them forwards indicates "Go ahead". Although the car in front usually has right of way, buses and trams always take precedence.

On country roads - including the two-lane east and west bank "highways" along the Nile Valley - trucks and cars routinely overtake in the face of incoming traffic. The passing car usually flashes its lights as a warning, but not always. Most roads are bumpy, with deep potholes and all manner of traffic, including donkey carts and camels. Beware, especially, of children darting into the road. If you injure someone, relatives may take revenge on the spot. Avoid driving after dark , when Egyptians drive without lights, only flashing them on to high beam when they see another car approaching. Wandering pedestrians and animals, obstructions and sand drifts present extra hazards. During spring, flash floods can wash away roads in Sinai. On pistes (rough, unpaved tracks in the desert or mountains) there are special problems. You need a good deal of driving and mechanical confidence - and shouldn't attempt such routes if you don't feel your car's up to scratch.

Police checkpoints - signposted in English as "Traffic Stations" - occur on the approach roads to towns and along major trunk routes. Foreign motorists are usually waved through, but you might be asked to show your passport or driving licence. In Middle Egypt the checkpoints are militarized, and Egyptian vehicles may be searched for weapons.

The official speed limit outside towns is 90km per hour (100km on the Cairo-Alexandria Desert Road), but on certain stretches it can be as low as 30km per hour. Road signs are similar to those in Europe. The minimum age for driving in Egypt is 25 years; the maximum age limit is 70 years.

Flights
Egyptian domestic air fares are average by international standards, but probably too expensive for most low-budget travellers. In general, it's only worth flying if your time is very limited, or for the view - the Nile Valley and Sinai look amazing from the air.

EgyptAir , the national airline, enjoys a monopoly so it has no incentive to offer discounts. Air Sinai was specially created to serve the Sinai and Israel, in order to protect EgyptAir from the withdrawal of landing rights in other Arab countries, but is really just the same outfit under another name. Details of flights and the addresses of local offices appear in the text.

Fares are calculated in US$ but payable in Egyptian currency, backed by an exchange receipt. As a rough guide to prices, a one-way 2nd class ticket from Cairo to Luxor costs about US$70 (£44). In the winter season, you would be lucky to get any kind of flight between Cairo and Luxor, Aswan, Abu Simbel or St Catherine's Monastery, without booking at least a week ahead. Always reconfirm 72 hours prior to the journey, as overbooking is commonplace.

Nile cruises, feluccas, ferries and catamarans
The colonial tradition of Nile cruises , familiar from films and novels, has spawned an industry deploying 240 steamers. Before the 1997 Luxor massacre, most cruise boats were booked months in advance by tour companies and it was difficult for individuals to make bookings in Egypt - but right now, it's much easier.

There are also some excellent cut-price offers available. Package deals cost as little as £350/US$560 for a week's cruise; while in Egypt you can arrange a four-day trip on the spot for around £115/US$180 (all prices are per person, in a twin cabin). Prices escalate dramatically with the luxury quotient. Most boats start off in Luxor, sailing down to Aswan, with stops at Esna, Edfu and Kom Ombo, over three to five days - longer cruises may also include Dendara or Philae, and begin or end in Cairo.

If you're looking for a cruise in Egypt, shop around and don't necessarily go for the cheapest deal - some boats leave a lot to be desired in terms of hygiene and living conditions. The luxurious boats with swimming pools can be wonderful, but you need to pick with care. If at all possible, try to look around the vessel first. The best deals are available from local agents (or directly from the boats) in Luxor and Aswan. The most reliable cruises are generally those sold in association with package holidays.

Feluccas , the lateen-sailed boats used on the Nile since antiquity, still serve as transport along many stretches of the river. Favoured by tourists for sunset cruises, they allow you to experience the changing moods and scenery of the Nile while lolling in blissful indolence.

Many visitors opt for longer felucca cruises , stopping at the temples between Luxor and Aswan - heading downriver from Aswan is the most popular route. While it's easy to arrange a cruise yourself, several tour operators also offer packages.

Local ferries cross the Nile and the Suez Canal at various points (specified as relevant in the guide). They are generally cheap, battered and crowded. There are also smarter tourist ferries between Luxor and the West Bank, but it's more fun to use the ordinary boats.

Long-distance services are confined to the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba, where the slow boats of yore have largely been superseded by a deluxe high-speed catamaran that zips over from Hurghada to Sharm el-Sheikh four days a week, in just ninety minutes. The US$33 (£22) fare isn't much more than is charged by the last of the old boats (which take over five hours), and is worth it to avoid the long overland journey via Suez, which requires the best part of a day. The catamaran also runs to the Jordanian port of Aqaba, and takes diving groups to various destinations.

Horses, donkeys and camels
Around the Pyramids and the major Nile sites, donkeys, horses and camels are all available for rental. Horses are fun if you want to ride across stretches of sand between the Pyramids or gallop in the desert in Sinai. Donkeys are best used for visiting the Theban Necropolis, where they traverse mountains that you'd never cross on foot, and enliven the trip no end. Elsewhere they have less appeal, but you might rent a caretta (donkey-drawn taxi cart) to explore the pools and ruins in Siwa Oasis. The Arabic word for donkey is humár (plural hameer); a donkey-guide is called a hámar.

Camels (or, technically, dromedaries) make for pretty rigorous but exhilarating riding, and you'll probably want to try them at least once. They are good for short rides around Aswan, to the monastery of St Simeon, for example, but where they really come into their own is in Sinai or the Western Desert oases, where you can go trekking up wadis or across dunes that horses could never cope with. Trips - lasting anything from a half-day to a week - are easily enough arranged with local operators, or as part of "adventure holiday" packages before you set off.

Camel riding is a real art, which gets a little easier on the body with experience. The mounting is done for you but be sure to hold onto the pommel of the saddle as the camel raises itself in a triple-jerk manoeuvre. Once on, you have a choice of riding it like a horse or cocking a leg around the pommel, as the Bedouin do. Be sure to use a lot of padding around the pommel: what begins as a minor irritation can end up leaving your skin rubbed raw.

Beware also of being palmed off with a male (bull) camel that's in heat - they can be quite vicious. Bad signs are an inflated mouth sac, aggressive behaviour towards its mates, and lots of noise and slobbering. When enraged, camels can launch a fierce attack - they've been known to grip someone's neck and shake them like a rag doll, or crush the bones in a leg