During the Old Kingdom - which began with the III Dynasty (c. 2686-2613 BC) - advances in technology and developments in culture raised Egypt to an unprecedented level of civilization.

 

The main figure of the III Dynasty was King Zoser (or Djoser), whose architect, Imhotep , built the first Step Pyramid at Saqqara in the 27th century BC. The pyramid's conception and construction were a landmark and later generations deified Imhotep as the ultimate sage. On the economic and political front, the III Dynasty also sent expeditions into Sinai, to seek turquoise and copper and subjugate the local Bedouin.

Pyramid-building and expansionism were likewise pursued during the IV Dynasty (c.2613-2494 BC). The Dynasty's first king, Snofru (aka Sneferu), raised two pyramids at Dahshur, and made incursions into Nubia and Libya. His successors, Cheops (Khufu), Chephren (Khafre) and Mycerinus (Menkaure), erected the Pyramids of Giza , expanded trade relations with the Near East, and developed mining activities in Nubia, where a copper-smelting factory was established at the Second Cataract. Though Snofru's line expired with the death of Shepseskaf , his widow Queen Khentkawes is believed to have married a high priest to produce an heir.

A debt to the priesthood of Heliopolis may explain the increased worship of Re during the V Dynasty (c.2494-2345 BC), whose rulers styled themselves "son of Re" and built elaborate sun temples at Abu Ghurab. Their pyramids at Abu Sir and Saqqara were smaller than those of the previous dynasty but more finely worked. It was Unas , the last pharaoh of the dynasty, who introduced religious texts into his pyramid: descriptions of the underworld and afterlife that subsequently inspired the Book of the Dead. Meanwhile, the tombs of nobles grew larger and further away from the royal pyramids, suggesting that their independence was increasing.

This trend continued during the VI Dynasty (c.2345-2181 BC) when nobles were buried in their own nomes (provinces). While punitive expeditions carried the pharaoh's banner deep into Nubia, Libya and Palestine, domestic power ebbed to the nomarchs, reaching the point of no return under Pepi II (aka Neferkare), whose death heralded the end of the Old Kingdom .