Alexander's stay in Egypt was brief, though long enough for him to adopt local customs. He offered sacrifices to the gods of Memphis and visited Amun's temple at Siwa, reorganized the country's administration, installing himself as pharaoh, and founded the coastal city of Alexandria ; he then went off to conquer what remained of the known world. Upon his death in 323 BC, Alexander's Macedonian generals divided the empire, Ptolemy becoming ruler of Egypt and establishing the Ptolemaic Dynasty in 332.

 

Under Ptolemy I, Greek became the official language and Hellenistic ideas had a profound effect on Egyptian art, religion and technology. Although Greek deities were also introduced, the Ptolemies cultivated the Egyptian gods and ruled much like Egyptian pharaohs, erecting great cult temples such as Edfu and Kom Ombo. They also opened new ports, established the great Library of Alexandria and had Hebrew scriptures translated into Greek by Jewish rabbis. The first synagogue in Egypt was founded at Leontopolis in the Delta.

It was dynastic disputes that led to the loss of Ptolemaic control. Roman intervention in Egypt grew until, under Ptolemy XII Auletes (80-51 BC), Egypt was almost totally dependent on Rome. Julius Caesar attacked Egypt in 54 BC, taking Alexandria by force.

The most famous queen of Egypt, Cleopatra VII (51-30 BC) was also the last of the Ptolemies. Under the protection of Julius Caesar - by whom she bore a son, Caesarion - Cleopatra managed to prolong her family's rule. After Caesar's death, she formed a similar alliance with Mark Antony to preserve Egyptian independence. Their joint fleets, however, suffered disaster against Octavian at the Battle of Actium, and both committed suicide rather than face captivity. Subsequently Egypt was reduced to the status of a province of the Roman Empire (30 BC).