Under the XIII Dynasty Egypt slid into an era of disorder that archeologists term the Second Intermediate Period , when the pharaohs lost control of Nubia and the Delta. The historian Manetho records that "peoples of an obscure race" overran the Delta in the reign of Dudimose, and went on to capture Memphis. Known to posterity as the Hyksos or "Shepherd Kings", they ruled from the Delta city of Avaris , maintaining links with Palestine, Crete and Persia. Although Egyptian chronicles describe their rule as anarchic, evidence such as the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus suggests that the Hyksos fostered native culture, took Egyptian names and ruled as pharaohs. The Hyksos may also have introduced the horse to Egypt - though its use was limited to hauling chariots.

 

From 1650 BC onwards, Hyksos rule was challenged by the XVII Dynasty of Theban kings, who claimed all of Egypt. The balance of power shifted back and forth, with Nubia allied to whichever state recognized its independence. Eventually, the Theban ruler Wadikheperre Kamose besieged Avaris, and his successor Ahmosis finally expelled the Hyksos from Egypt in 1567 BC, ushering in a new era.